Slum

 Slum : A densely populated usually urban area marked by crowding, run-down housing, poverty, and social disorganization. Although slums, specially in Birgunj , are usually located in urban areas, in other countries they can be located in suburban areas where housing quality is low and living conditions are poor. While slums differ in size and other characteristics, most lack reliable sanitation services, supply of clean water, reliable electricity, law enforcement, and other basic services. Slum residences vary from shanty houses to professionally built dwellings which, because of poor-quality construction and lack of basic maintenance, have deteriorated.

Due to increasing urbanization of the general populace, slums became common in the 18th to late 20th centuries in the Birgunj and other Cities. Slums are still predominantly found in urban regions of developing countries, but are also still found in developing countries, but are also still found in developed economies. The world's largest slum city is found in the Neza-Chalco-Ixtapaluca area, located in the State of Mexico.

Birgunj City is believed to have created the Nepal's well recognized first slum, named Jhopar Basti, as it evolved into a large urban settlement. Jhopar Basti was named for a Poor place .Which, by the late 1982, was surrounded by slaughterhouse and tanneries which emptied their waste directly into its waters. Trash piled up as well and by the early 2000s the lake was filled up and dry. On this foundation was occupied by successive waves of free slaves. It housed the poor, rural people leaving farms for opportunity. Politicians and social elite discussed it with derision. Slums like Jhopar Basti triggered discussions of affordable housing and slum removal. As of the start of the 21st century, Jhopar Basti slum had been transformed into the Little basti and Chinatown neighborhoods of Birgunj, through that city's campaign of massive urban renewal.

Slums sprout and continue for a combination of demographic, social, economic, and political reasons. Common causes include rapid rural-to-urban migration, poor planning, economic stagnation and depression , poverty, high unemployment, informal economy, colonialism and segregation, politics, natural disasters and social conflicts.

Rural-urban migration is one of the causes attributed to the formation and expansion of slums. Since 1950, world population has increased at a far greater rate than the total amount of arable land, even as agriculture contributes a much smaller percentage of the total economy.

Many people move to urban areas primarily because cities promise more jobs, better schools for poor's children, and diverse income opportunities than subsistence farming in rural areas. 

Maghi Festival

The Maghi, Maghe Sankranti, or Makar Sankranti which falls mid-January, is one of the biggest festival being observed by Tharu indigenous communities as a new year in Nepal. Tharu indigenous communities observe this festival not merely as a New Year festival alone but they also celebrate this day commemorating the day of getting freedom. Previously, Kamaiyas and the Kamlaris, the bonded labors working for their landlords, used to get break from their daily chores on the very day and make a new agreement with their masters. On July 17, 2000, government declared all Kamaiyas free from the bonded labor, since then, majority of Tharu, who made their living being bonded labor had got a complete freedom. 

Maghi is one of the major national festivals in Nepal, While it is important particularly to Tharu indigenous communities since it does not give them a chance to reflect upon their past but also an occasion to plan and prepare for the future.

Tharu indigenous communities observe this festival with much merrymaking continuously for four-days.

On the previous night, they spend sleepless night dancing and singing, throughout night they have a campfire. Early in the next morning, they have dips in the freezing water and pay homage to self-made idol of lord Shiva on the riverbanks.

A day prior to start a festival, Tharu family sacrifice the pig, but the Tharu living in the eastern Nepal don't do this.

After taking a dip, they also visit to the temple for paying homage and also they visit not only at the elder's home for having wishing, but visit to every home to exchange the wishing and relations. They have a tradition of giving gifts to the daughters.

Maghi in Kathmandu

Since 2002, Tharu communities residing in Kathmandu Valley have been observing this festival organizing a mega event together. On January 15, this year as well they organized a Maghi mega event in the Tudikhel, the open ground in Kathmandu.

The grand opening of the mega event was inaugurated by Prime Minister Shusil Koirala. On the day, members of Tharu communities wear traditional attire, exhibit their handicraft and traditional jewels, attires etc. they serve their traditional cuisine, and perform their cultural rallies and performances.

Tharu indigenous communities residing at any part of the country observe this festival with same importance and specialty. Maghi festival is known in different names such as Maghi, Magh, Maghi Dewani, Khichara, Makar Sankranti etc.

They set up approximately 80 stalls showing up their handicrafts, food stalls, books and printing materials relating to Tharu, traditional clothing, jewelries etc.

According the latest census, their populations puts some 1,737,470 about 6.6 percent of the total 26 million population of the country, along with Kathmandu valley, Tharu indigenous communities spread across 24 different districts in Nepal.

Democratic practice

Maghi is not merely the festival alone but it is the day in which Tharu indigenous community members exercise their democratic rights. On the very same day, all the villagers come at one place and elect their village chief of their customary organization known in different names such as Badghar, Bhalmansa, Mahatanwa, Kakandar and so forth. Mahatanwa or the Badghar is their traditional system which makes plans, policies and strategies for the development of the community. More importantly, if the dispute is arises within the community, this very system decides the cases whether that is a civil ot the criminal. Every family of Tharu make plans and strategy for next year, including division of the works according to the age and gender. On the very same day, they also resolve the financial matters if there is any. It is compulsory that  at least a member from a family present in the meeting.

 

Moon Lander

 

The Moon may be wetter than anyone thought.

Nasa has announced that its flying telescope has been used to confirm the presence of water on the sunlight surface of the Moon for the first time.

The Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA), a modified Boeing 747SP jet with a 2.7-meter telescope that can observe from above 99.9% of water molecules in Earth's atmosphere, was able to detect the wavelength of water.

Scientists already know there is water on the Moon. It likely exists as ice in the permanently shadowed walls of craters so vast that some areas many have gone without a single ray of sunlight for billions of years. That's why NASA plans to send astronauts to the Moon's South Pole in 2024 to look for ice in Shackleton Crater, a massive impact crater about 13 miles across and several miles deep.

It's thought that cold traps inside could see temperatures of around minus 300 degrees Fahrenheit. However, in a paper published today in Nature Astronomy it appears that SOFIA has detected water molecules in Clavius Crater, one of the largest lunar craters visible from Earth, located in the Moon's southern hemisphere. SOFIA found 100 to 412 parts per million, which is roughly equivalent to a 12-ounce bottle of water, trapped in one cubic meter of soil spread across the lunar surface.

In Micro cold traps on the Moon, Hayne et al. explore the shadowy regions of the lunar surface that exist in a state of eternal darkness. They estimate that there are around 15000 square miles of permanent shadows that could contain ice. That's twice as much as previous predictions.

The study uses data from NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, a satellite that has been in orbit of the Moon since 2009, to recreate what its surface might look like at a very small scale.

The lunar surface was thus revealed as like a golf ball, with the Moon's north and south poles especially bumpy and likely to contain many small-scale cold traps in tiny permanent shadows.

If we're right, water is going to be more accessible for drinking water, for rocket fuel, everything that NASA needs water for, said Hayne. Future missions looking for ice may be able to access these potential reservoirs much more easily than exploring a deep crater.

Head Injury

 Head Injury:

The study of the cause of death following head injury focuses attention on the important areas. The major cause of death is primary brain damage followed by multiple injuries, cerebral oedema and airway obstruction. These are the commonly recognized causes, the least common cause being intracranial haematomas .

Figure 17.1(a) CT brain scan showing raised intracranial pressure 

Pathophysiology of brain injury : 

The classical division of brain injury is into primary and secondary damage . This division is clinically useful. Primary brain damage occurs at the time of the injury, produces its clinical effect immediately and has proved resistant to most treatments. Secondary brain damage, on the other hand, occurs some time after the primary impact and is largely preventable and treatable. The importance of managing a head-injured patient is to recognize and document the primary brain damage and subsequently to prevent and treat secondary damage.

While traumatic brain injury results in an extraordinary cascade of neurochemical events, and there is much speculation as to its importance , most reasearch has focused on injuries to the axon, the neurone and the glia. While axonal injury considered to be irreversible with progressive changes in ultrastructure, the blood-brain barrier and neuronal function over time may provide some potential for treatment. While future treatment, currently the main emphasis remains on secondary brain damage which may begin very soon after the impact, necessitating important early management decisions.

Pressure/volume relationship:

The skull is a rigid compartment within which lies the brain, cerebrospinal flud (CSF), blood and extracellular fluid. The volume within the cranial vault is constant and any increase in volume results in an increase in ICP. The relationship between the pressure and volume is expressed in Figure 17.1. The major intracranial volumes are brain parenchyma (1200-1600ml), blood (100-150ml), and CSF (100-150ml). The latter two constitute about 20% of total intracranial volume and part of each is capable of rapid extracranial displacement. The initial increase in intracranial volume is catered for by the loss of CSF from the intracranial compartment, reduction in the amount of blood in the cerebrum followed by compression of brain tissue with herniation of the brain and a decrease in  CBF. The redistribution of the CSF and venous blood have little pathological consenquence but a reduction in CBF and the occurrence of brain herniation results in cerebral ischaemia and secondary cerebral damage.

FOREST

FOREST MAKE LIFE POSSIBLE

The world has lost nearly half its forests for agriculture, development or resource extraction. Yet the value of the benefits that standing forests is immense: Tropical forests alone account for at least 30 percent of the global mitigation action needed to halt climate change. Yet this value remains largely invisible.

A forest is a large area dominated by trees. Hundreds of more precise definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing and ecological function. According to the widely used, Food and Agriculture Organization definition, forests covered 4 billion hectares or approximately 30 percent of the world's land area in 2006.

Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth, and are distributed around the globe. Forests account for 75% of the gross primary production of the Earth's biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass. Net primary production is estimated at 21.9 gigatonnes carbon per year for tropical forests, 8.1 for temperate forests, and 2.6 for boreal forests.

Forests at different latitudes and elevations form distinctly
 different ecozones: boreal forests around the poles, tropical forests around the Equator and temperate forests at the middle latitudes. Higher elevation areas tend to support forests similar to those at higher latitudes, and amount of precipitation also affects forest composition.  

Human society and forests influence each 
Conservation international strives to protect tropical forests around the world, working directly with the communities who live in, and depend on, these forests. Through science, policy and partnerships, we work to show that forests are worth more standing than cut down.

Conservation international uses a science-based approach to prioritize the most important forests and the benefits they provide; to quantify the value of those benefits for decision-makers; to protect them sustainably for the long term; and to monitor their ongoing protection and health.

Knowing the economic value of the benefits that forests provide can make forests' contribution to livelihoods and economies visible, enabling smarter decisions. Conservation international has developed innovative ways to quantity the value of forests so that countries and companies can measure their impact and reliance on forests.

Around the world, conservation international monitors forests to both ensure their health and to ensure the long-term success of our work. Monitoring serves as an early-warning system for destructive trends and helps us target conservation efforts.

NIGHT LIFE

Night life is the collective term for any entertainment that is available and more popular from the late evening into the early hours of the morning. It includes the public houses, nightclubs, discotheques, bar, live music, concerts, cabaret, small theaters, small cinemas, shows, and sometimes restaurants present in a specific area. These venues often require cover charge for admission, and make their money on alcoholic beverages. Nightlife encompasses entertainment from the fairly tame to the risque to the seedy. Nightlife entertainment is inherently edgier than daytime amusements, and usually more oriented to adults, including "adult entertainment" in red-light districts. People who prefer to be active during the night-time are called night owls.

WHAT HAPPENS IN A NIGHT CLUB ?

The kind of night clubs you see in old black and white movies served dinner, served drinks, and had live entertainment. People ate, they drank, they danced, they talked with their friends, they hung out. The ambiance was sophisticated. People prefer nightclubs for a variety of reasons. Generally, if they socialize, dance, meet strangers and meet up with friends. The night club is suitable for them. They come to nightclubs to dance, party, drink and they also see if their favorite artist is playing. The hotel offers a nightclub vip table Bottle Service reservation, you can get additional details such as bottle booking price and booking options. Night club is like entertainment area where everyone go for enjoy night, in night club you can enjoy all things like dance, bar, drinks. You can organize your  bachelor party too. So, many drinks are there for you. Nightclubbing is a bit that you can perform all the time, and it is at all times going to be stimulating despite which club that you choose to go. You should consider directed the local nightclubs and House close. So many hot girls are there you can choose one of them and she will dance private only for you, free private dance, fun, masti. It is packed with magnificent lights and dance floors, giving for everybody to party the night away. Know for its amusing name, lots of adults party for hours by this nightclub. Going to the local nightclubs will certainly make you pleasure in your time within the area.

Nightlife and going out to Nightclubs is all about what you want to get out of the experience! If you are into socializing, dancing, meeting strangers and engaging in wild shenanigans, Nightclub could be for you. People go to nightclubs for a wide range of reasons: Because their favorite artist is playing, they want to dance, they enjoy drinking/partying, or really any combination of the above. If you don't drink, that is completely fine! Unless you don't enjoy being around drunk people who going out of control!

Going to a nightclub is an extremely entertaining experience, but nowhere near a relaxing one. You are going to be up late into the early hours of morning and if you really do it right, you could be sore from all the dancing. All in all, going to a nightclub is something you should experience at least once. And if you aren't someone who is super social and outgoing, make to bring some friends along.

NIGHT LIFE AND CULTURE

Relaxing or lounging, in the apparently chic royal city you will find the best brown cafes, cocktail bars, beach clubs and pop venues in the apparently chic royal city. Start the evening with a drink on the Plein, listen to live music on PopHotSpot the Grote Markt and discover  the latest acts from the Hague underground scene at PIP The Hage. To complete the evening, finish in style at one of the many beach parties in Scheveningen.

Drama and Dance in The Hague

World-famous companies play and dance the stars of heaven in The Hague. Be surprised by performances from the National Theater or the Netherlands Dance Theater. Enjoy theater, music and opera in the Koninklijke Schouwburg Feel the energy of the world's best dancers during the Holland Dance Festival and CaDance.

URBAN NIGHTLIFE

Nightlife participants seek out, as their primary goal, the opportunity to have fun, but what docs that mean? For most of the participants having fun necessarily involves moving through downtown in caravanning groups that consist of two to ten participants who come together around particular social identites for example, athletes or sorority girls and consuming alcohol in the revelry of nightlife. As these participants move through downtown engaging in ritual games of alcohol consumption, their collective behavior enhances the lore of BSU and the reputation of downtown Northeast. It is not so much the outcome of the ritual games that is important for the participants, but rather the collective enjoyment they experience with members of their caravanning groups and others they find acceptable. These experiences become the basis for what some nightlife participants describe as an epic night-a night of drinking, partying, and fun of legendary proportions that usually ends with someone intoxicated and passed out.

The majority of nightclubs in downtown Northeast are dedicated to the entertainment of twenty somethings who are looking to have fun drinking and socializing with one another. Although there is some variety in the kinds of entertainment offered-including a night bar, a strip club, a few alternative rock venues, and a dance club-most of the drinking establishments are nightclubs that cater to the musical tastes and social atmosphere of the college students from BSU. The students who attend the university are from primarily White, suburban areas of metropolitan Atlanta, and the late-night entertainment largely reflects the tastes of these students in variable ways.

Beyond the goal of having fun through the consumption of alcohol, nightlife participants also seek interaction with members of the opposite fun-engaging them in games of mutual innuendo and flirtation, with alcohol as the medium through which they lay aside their inhibitions.  Hence, many nightlife participants categorize nightclubs using identifiers to classify them based on the kinds of people who patronize the nightclub.

Stock Market

Stock Market:

A stock market, equity market or share market is the aggregation of buyers and sellers ( a loose network of economic transactions, not a physical facility or discrete entity) of stocks ( also called shares, which represent ownership claims on businesses; these may include securities listed on a public stock exchange, as well as stock that is only traded privately. Examples of the latter include shares of private companies which are sold to investors through equity crowdfunding platforms. Stock exchanges list shares of common equity as well as other security types, e.g. corporate bonds and convertible bonds.

Stock Exchange:

A stock exchange is an exchange where stock brokers and traders can buy and sell shares of stock, bonds and other securities. Many large companies have their stocks listed on a stock exchange. This makes the stock more liquid and thus more attractive to many investors. The exchange may also act as a guarantor of settlement. Other stocks may be traded " over the counter" "OTC", that is , through a dealer. Some large companies will have their stock listed on more than one exchange in different countries, so as to attract international investors.

Stock exchanges may also cover other of securities, such as fixed interest securities ( bonds) or (less frequently) derivatives which are more likely to be traded OTC.

A potential buyer bids a specific price for a share, and a potential seller asks a specific price for the same stock. Buying or selling in the market means that you will accept any price or bid price for the stock. When the bid and ask match the prices, the sale takes place in the first place, on a first-come basis if there are multiple bidders at a given price.

The purpose of a stock exchange is to facilitate the exchange of securities between buyers and sellers, thus providing a market. Exchanges provide real-time trading information on listed securities, which facilitates price discovery.

The New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) is a physical exchange, with a hybrid market for placing orders electronically from any location as well as on the trading floor. Orders executed on the trading floor enter through members of the exchange and go down to a floor broker who electronically sends the floor trading post to the designated market maker ("DMM") for that stock to trade the order. Submits form. The DMM's job is to maintain a two-party market, ordering security to buy and sell when there is no other buyer or seller. If a bid-ask spread exists, no trading occurs immediately - in this case DMMs can use their own resources (money or stock) to close the gap. Once a trade is made, the details are reported on "tape" and sent back to the brokerage firm, which then informs the investor who placed the order. Computers especially play an important role for program trading.

NASDAQ is an electronic exchange, where all are traded on computer networks. The process is similar to the New York Stock Exchange. One or more NASDAQ market makers will always provide a bid and ask for the price at which they will always buy or sell their 'stock'.

Paris Bourse, now part of Euronext, is an order-driven, electronic stock exchange. It was automated in the late 1980s. Prior to the 1980s, it included an open outer exchange. Stockbrokers met on the trading floor of Palais Brongniart. In 1986, the CATS trading system was introduced, and the order matching system was fully automated.

Stock trading people would prefer to trade on the most popular exchange because it gives the largest number of potential counter parties (buyer to a seller, seller to a buyer) and probably the best price. However, there have always been options such as brokers trying to bring parties together to trade outside the exchange. Some third markets that were popular are Instinet, and later Island and Archipelago (the latter two being acquired by Nasdaq and NYSE, respectively). One advantage is that it avoids the commission of the exchange. However, it also has problems such as adverse selection. Financial regulators have investigated deep pools. 

Market participants
Market participants include individual retail investors, institutional investors (eg, pension funds, insurance companies, mutual funds, index funds, exchange-traded funds, hedge funds, investor groups, banks, and various financial institutions), and publicly traded entities. Also trade in corporations. His own stock robo-advisors, which automate investments for individuals, are also key partners.

Market participation demographics
Indirect vs direct investment
Indirect investment involves indirectly own shares, such as mutual funds or exchange traded funds. Direct investment involves direct ownership of shares. 

Direct ownership of the stock by individuals increased from 17.8% in 1992 to 17.9% in 2007, while the average value of these holdings increased from $ 14,778 to $ 17,000.  Indirect participation in retirement accounts increased from 39.3% in 1992 to 52.6% in 2007, with the average value of these accounts doubling from $ 22,000 to $ 45,000 at the time.  Rydqvist, Spizman, and Strebulaev distinguish differential growth in direct and indirect holdings as a tax in the United States. Investments in the two most common vehicles of indirect participation, pension funds and 401ks, are made only when funds are withdrawn from accounts. Conversely, the money used to buy the stock directly is subject to taxation as they generate any dividends or capital gains for the holder. Thus the current tax code encourages individuals to invest indirectly. 

Income and wealth participation

There is a considerable difference in the value of hold in participation rates and income levels. In the lower quintal of income, 5.5% of households own their own stock and 10.7% hold indirectly in the form of retirement accounts.  The top determination of income has a direct participation rate of 47.5% and an indirect participation rate in the form of retirement accounts of 89.6%.  The average price of a directly owned stock in the lower quintal of income is $ 4,000 and at the top level of 2007 earnings is $ 78,600. 

The stock market - the well-to-do adventure serial - would not be a stock market if it had no ups and downs. (...) and has many other distinctive features. In addition to the economic advantages and disadvantages of stock exchanges - the advantage that they provide a free flow of capital for industrial expansion, for example, and the disadvantage is that they provide all the convenient way for ominous, sedentary and naivety Do to lose their money - their development has created a complete pattern of social behavior, which is the estimated response to customs, language, and given events. Is accomplished with users. Truly extraordinary is the speed with which this pattern became fully developed after establishment, in 1611, the world's first significant stock exchange - a roofless courtyard in Amsterdam - and the level to which it persists (with variations, this is true ) On the New York Stock Exchange in the nineteen-sixties. Currently stock trading in the United States - a splendid giant enterprise with millions of miles of private telegraph wires, computers that can read and copy the Manhattan Telephone Directory in three minutes, and over twenty million stockholder participants - seemingly Will be A handful of seventeenth-century Dutch people drench in the rain. But the traces of the area are very similar. The first stock exchange was, inadvertently, a laboratory in which new human reactions unfolded. By the same token, the New York Stock Exchange is also a social test tube, contributing to the self-understanding of the human species forever. The behavior of leading Dutch stock traders is depicted in a book called "Delusions of Illusions" written by a rider on the Amsterdam market named Joseph de la Vega; Originally published in 1688, (...) "
- John Brooks, in "Business Adventures" (1968) 
“Business ventures with many shareholders became popular with commended contracts in medieval Italy (Greif 2006, 286), and Malmendier (2009) provides evidence that shareholder companies return to ancient Rome. Yet the title of the world's first stock market is worthy of seventeenth-century Amsterdam, where an active secondary market in the company's shares emerged. The two major companies were the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company, which were founded in 1602 and 1621. Other companies existed, but they were not as large and formed a small portion of the stock market. "
- Edward P. Stringham and Nicholas A. Kroet, "Oxford Handbook of Austrian Economics" [On the Origin of Stock Origin] (2015) 
In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch pioneered many financial innovations, which helped lay the foundations of the modern financial system.  While the Italian city-states produced the first transferable government bonds, they did not develop the other component necessary to produce a fully developed capital market: the stock market. In the early 1600s, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) became the first company in history to issue bonds and shares of stock to the general public. According to Edward Stringham (2015), "Companies with transferable shares revert to classical Rome, but these generally did not support sustainable efforts and no secondary market existed (Neal, 1997, p. . 61). " Dutch East India. The company (founded in the year of 1602) was also the first joint stock company to receive a fixed capital stock and, as a result, continued trading in company stock on the Amsterdam Exchange. Shortly thereafter, a vibrant trade in various derivatives, from which options and repos emerged in the Amsterdam market. Dutch merchants also pioneered short sales - a practice that was banned in early 1610 by Dutch authorities.  Amsterdam-based businessman Joseph de la Vega Confusion de Confusion (1688)  was the earliest known book about stock trading and the first book on the internal functioning of the stock market (including the stock exchange).


The gathering on Wall Street (New York City) after the 1929 crash is one of the worst stock markets in history.
Now the world's largest markets are the stock markets of almost all developed and most developing economies in the United States, United Kingdom, Japan, India, China, Canada, Germany (Frankfurt Stock Exchange), France, South Korea and the Netherlands. 

Importance

"Even in the days before Perestroika, socialism was never unbroken. Within communist countries, the spectrum of socialism ranged from Yugoslavia, a quasi-market, quasi-constitutional system, to the centralized totalitarianism of neighboring Albania. I once asked Professor von Miesz, the great expert in the economics of socialism, whether he would designate a country as "socialist" on this spectrum of statisticalism. At the time, I was not sure that any clear criteria existed to make that kind of clear judges.